75 Napoleon and the New World
23.1.8: Napoleon and the New World
Napoleon’s decisions to reinstate slavery in French colonies and sell the Louisiana territory to the United States, together with the triumph of the Haitian Revolution, made his colonial policies some of the greatest failures of his rule.
Learning Objective
Evaluate Napoleon’s relationship to the New World, specifically Haiti
Key Points
- In the middle of the 18th century, a series of colonial conflicts began between France and Britain, ultimately resulting in the destruction of most of the existing French colonial empire and the near complete expulsion of France from the Americas.
- Modest recovery of the French colonial empire was made during the French intervention in the American Revolution, with Saint Lucia returned to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The end of France’s first colonial empire began in 1791 when Saint Domingue was torn apart by a massive slave revolt (Haitian Revolution).
- The French attempt to establish a colony in Egypt in 1798–1801 under the military leadership of Napoleon failed. During the following years Napoleon, already the ruler of France, did not manage to turn the country into an important colonial power.
- A brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies. Saint-Domingue managed to acquire a high level of political autonomy during the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussaint Louverture installing himself as de facto dictator by 1801. Napoleon saw his chance to recuperate the wealthy colony when he signed the Treaty of Amiens.
- During the Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in 1794. Under the terms of Amiens, however, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented. The resulting Law of May 20 thus technically reestablished slavery in some French colonies.
- Although the French managed to capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed when high rates of disease crippled the French army. In May 1803, the last 8000 French troops left the island and the slaves proclaimed an independent republic that they called Haïti in 1804. Seeing the failure of his colonial efforts, Napoleon decided in 1803 to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States. At the close of the Napoleonic Wars, most (although not all) of France’s colonies were restored to it by Britain.
Key Terms
- Haitian Revolution
- A successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the former French colony of Saint Domingue from 1791 until 1804. It impacted the institution of slavery throughout the Americas. Self-liberated slaves destroyed slavery at home, fought to preserve their freedom, and collaborated with mulattoes to found the sovereign state of Haiti.
- Law of May 20
- A law passed in 1802 that revoked the Law of February 4, 1794, which had abolished slavery in all the French colonies. It explicitly concerned the territories, where the 1794 law had not been applied, and was linked to the 1802 Treaty of Amiens which restored Martinique to France. The 1802 law thus did not apply to Guadeloupe and Guyane and had little effect in Saint-Domingue except to re-inflame rebellion and accelerate its march towards independence in 1804.
- French Revolutionary Wars
- A series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802, resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the French First Republic against Britain, Austria, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution expanded.
- Louisiana Purchase
- The acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid 50 million francs ($11.25 million USD) and a cancellation of debts worth 18 million francs ($3.750 million USD) for a total of 68 million francs ($15 million USD). The Louisiana territory included land from 15 present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces.
- Napoleonic Wars
- A series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire, led by Napoleon I, against an array of European powers formed into various coalitions between 1803 and 1815. They revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly owing to the application of modern mass conscription. The wars were a continuation of the Revolutionary Wars, which broke out in 1792 during the French Revolution.
The French Colonial Empire: Background
In the middle of the 18th century, a series of colonial conflicts began between France and Britain that ultimately resulted in the destruction of most of the existing French colonial empire and the near complete expulsion of France from the Americas. The Seven Years’ War (1756-63) was a particularly bad defeat for the French, with the numerically superior British conquering not only New France (excluding the small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon), but also most of France’s West Indian (Caribbean) colonies and all of the French Indian outposts. While the following peace treaty saw France’s Indian outposts and the Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe restored to France, the competition for influence in India was won by the British and North America was entirely lost. Most of New France was taken by Britain (except Louisiana, which France ceded to Spain as payment for Spain’s late entrance into the war and as compensation for Britain’s annexation of Spanish Florida). Also ceded to the British were Grenada and Saint Lucia in the West Indies. Although the loss of Canada would cause regret in future generations, it did not seem like a French failure at the time. Colonialism was widely regarded as largely unimportant to France.
Modest recovery of the French colonial empire was made during the French intervention in the American Revolution, with Saint Lucia returned to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The end of what remained of France’s first colonial empire began in 1791 when Saint Domingue (the Western third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola), France’s richest and most important colony, was torn apart by a massive slave revolt (Haitian Revolution).
Napoleon and the Colonies
The French attempt to establish a colony in Egypt in 1798–1801 under the military leadership of Napoleon failed. During the years to come Napoleon, already the ruler of France, did not manage to turn the country into an important colonial power. After a decade of constant warfare, France and Britain signed the 1802 Treaty of Amiens, bringing the French Revolutionary Wars to an end. Amiens called for the withdrawal of British troops from recently conquered colonial territories as well as for assurances to curtail the expansionary goals of the French Republic. With Europe at peace and the economy recovering, Napoleon’s popularity soared to its highest levels under the Consulate, both domestically and abroad.
This brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies. Saint-Domingue managed to acquire a high level of political autonomy during the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussaint Louverture installing himself as de facto dictator by 1801. Napoleon saw his chance to recuperate the wealthy colony when he signed the Treaty of Amiens. During the Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in 1794. Under the terms of Amiens, however, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented. The resulting Law of May 20 never applied to colonies like Guadeloupe or Guyane, even though rogue generals and other officials used the pretext of peace as an opportunity to reinstate slavery in some of these places. The Law of May 20 officially restored the slave trade to the Caribbean colonies, not slavery itself. Napoleon sent an expedition under General Leclerc designed to reassert control over Sainte-Domingue. Although the French managed to capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed when high rates of disease crippled the French army. In May 1803, the last 8,000 French troops left the island and the slaves proclaimed an independent republic that they called Haïti in 1804. Seeing the failure of his colonial efforts, Napoleon decided in 1803 to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States, instantly doubling the size of the U.S. The selling price in the Louisiana Purchase was less than three cents per acre, a total of $15 million.
At the close of the Napoleonic Wars, most of France’s colonies were restored to it by Britain, notably Guadeloupe and Martinique in the West Indies, French Guiana on the coast of South America, various trading posts in Senegal, the Île Bourbon (Réunion) in the Indian Ocean, and France’s tiny Indian possessions. However, Britain finally annexed Saint Lucia, Tobago, the Seychelles, and the Isle de France (now Mauritius).
Attributions
- Napoleon and the New World
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“French colonial empire.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
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“French Revolutionary Wars.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
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“Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791_German_copper_engraving.jpg.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Revolution#/media/File:Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791,_German_copper_engraving.jpg. Wikipedia Public domain.