35 Reading: Structural-Functional Theory
Sociological Paradigm #1: Functionalism
Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820–1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body; he argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). The parts of society that Spencer referred to were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.
Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist, applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability (Durkheim 1893), and that society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols. He believed that to study society, a sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life. Alfred Radcliff-Brown (1881–1955) defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played in social life as a whole, and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and continuity (Radcliff-Brown 1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain stability, a state called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons (1961).
Durkheim believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study society, sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. Social facts are the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life (Durkheim 1895). Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society. For example, one function of a society’s laws may be to protect society from violence, while another is to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health.
Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed out that social processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated, while latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social process. A manifest function of college education, for example, includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, and finding a good job that utilizes that education. Latent functions of your college years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even finding a spouse or partner. Another latent function of education is creating a hierarchy of employment based on the level of education attained. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society are called dysfunctions. In education, examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades, truancy, dropping out, not graduating, and not finding suitable employment.
Bring It Home
Watch the following video to see more applications of the structural-functional theory.
Criticism
One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can’t adequately explain social change. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory; repetitive behavior patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know that they have a function only because they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions may continue, even though they don’t serve a function, which seemingly contradicts the basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful purpose in some mid-level analyses.
A Global Culture?
Sociologists around the world look closely for signs of what would be an unprecedented event: the emergence of a global culture. In the past, empires such as those that existed in China, Europe, Africa, and Central and South America linked people from many different countries, but those people rarely became part of a common culture. They lived too far from each other, spoke different languages, practiced different religions, and traded few goods. Today, increases in communication, travel, and trade have made the world a much smaller place. More and more people are able to communicate with each other instantly—wherever they are located—by telephone, video, and text. They share movies, television shows, music, games, and information over the Internet. Students can study with teachers and pupils from the other side of the globe. Governments find it harder to hide conditions inside their countries from the rest of the world.
Sociologists research many different aspects of this potential global culture. Some explore the dynamics involved in the social interactions of global online communities, such as when members feel a closer kinship to other group members than to people residing in their own countries. Other sociologists study the impact this growing international culture has on smaller, less-powerful local cultures. Yet other researchers explore how international markets and the outsourcing of labor impact social inequalities. Sociology can play a key role in people’s abilities to understand the nature of this emerging global culture and how to respond to it.
Practice
1. What is the difference between a social structure and a social function?
- A social structure is a stable, routine-like pattern of interaction, and a social function is any act or process that contributes to the maintenance of a social system.
- A social structure is a complex and interconnected machine, and a social function is any act that contributes to the maintenance of a social system.
- A social function is a complex and interconnected machine, and a social structure is any act that contributes to the maintenance of a social system.
- A social function is a stable, routine-like pattern of interaction, and a social structure is any act or process that contributes to the maintenance of a social system.
aShow Answer
2. Which of the following statements are true?
- Structural functional theory uses a macro-level orientation.
- Structural functional theory is focused on individual interactions in society.
- Structural functional theory sees society as a complex and interconnected machine.
- Both a and c
- All of the above are true.
dShow Answer
Show Glossary
- dynamic equilibrium:
- a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly
- dysfunctions:
- social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
- function:
- the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity
- functionalism:
- a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
- latent functions:
- the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
- manifest functions:
- sought consequences of a social process
- paradigms:
- philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
- social facts:
- the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life
- social institutions:
- patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs